Turkish morale was high after having soundly defeated a Russian offensive in November 1914. Enver Pasha decided to utilise this spirit in a great winter push. As his grandiose plan moved into operation in December, the Russians retreated and the Turks advanced through the snows and frosts of the Caucasian mountains, enduring terrible hardships in the process. Enver's offensive, which he had started with some 95,000 men, ended in complete catastrophe. Turkish losses were appalling - about 75,000 men and the whole of the artillery. Russian losses were also formidable - 16,000 killed out of 65,000 men.

This article is located in the History of the First World War Volume 2 (REF D522 .H58 1969 V.2).