Security force assistance, specifically the development of Afghanistan's security forces, is a central pillar of the counterinsurgency campaign being waged by U.S. and coalition forces in Afghanistan. The outcome of the campaign hinges, in large measure, on the effectiveness of the assistance provided to the Afghan National Army, Afghan National Police, and other security forces. This report provides an overview of Soviet efforts to improve and facilitate the training and development of Afghan security forces, specifically, the Afghan military, police, and intelligence services. It covers the time period from 1920-1989, with specific focus on the period of the Soviet military presence in Afghanistan, from 1979-1989. To do so, it draws on Western, Soviet, and Russian historical sources and interviews in Kabul and Moscow with individuals involved on the Soviet side and on the Afghan side. It concludes with comparisons with and lessons for ongoing security force assistance in Afghanistan.

Preface -- Figures -- Table -- Summary -- Acknowledgments -- Abbreviations -- Chapter One. Introduction -- The Limited Contingent -- Purpose and Research Approach -- Chapter Two. Historical Overview: 20th-Century Security Aid to Afghanistan Before the Soviet Invasion -- 1920-1978 -- The Saur Revolution -- Events Leading Up to the Soviet Invasion -- Afghan Security Forces on the Eve of the Soviet Invasion -- A Decision to Invade? -- Chapter Three. The Soviet Advisory Mission in the 1980s: Senior Leadership and Reporting Channels -- Chapter Four. MoI and KhAD Security Forces During the 1980s -- The Sarandoy -- KhAD -- Chapter Five. The Afghan Military -- The Military Advisory Mission -- Training of Afghan Military Personnel -- Aviation -- Border Forces -- Chapter Six. Militias and Other Forces -- Citizen Militias -- Border and Tribal Militias -- Chapter Seven. Afghan Security Forces Challenges and Responses -- Force Size and Desertion -- Efforts to Increase Numbers and Improve Morale -- Equipment -- Division of Labor Among Afghan Security Forces -- Transferring Control -- Chapter Eight. The Soviet Decision to Withdraw and the Legacy of Soviet Efforts to Build Afghan Security Forces -- Dissenting Voices -- Preparing to Leave -- The Withdrawal and After -- Evaluating Soviet Efforts in Hindsight -- Chapter Nine. Conclusion: Parallels, Disconnects, and What the International Security Assistance Force Can Learn from the Soviet Experience -- Overall Approaches -- Recruiting and Retention -- Policing -- Counterinsurgency and Military Training -- Interaction Between Afghan and Foreign Forces and the Challenges of Transferring Lead Responsibility -- Afghan Capabilities -- What ISAF Can Learn from the Soviet Experience -- References.