War is the outward expression of competition between complex adaptive political and military systems. In war, competing systems introduce new technological means to gain comparative advantage over other systems and the environment. Greater technological complexity, however, creates greater uncertainty. This uncertainty is the result not only of technical problems associated with new military machines, but also of unintended consequences of technology within the chaotic environment of war. To cope with this increased uncertainty, military strategy should be adaptive in applying new means to achieve desired ends in war. Increased uncertainty demands technological and operational adaptation to achieve desired military objectives. The United States laced a complex strategic problem in the last years of the war against Japan in the Pacific. The Boeing B-29 Superfortress was the U.S. Army Air Force's technological solution to crossing the vast expanse of ocean to compel the unconditional surrender of Japan with a minimum of American casualties. The B-29's pressurized cockpit, longer range, more accurate bombing systems, and mechanically controlled defensive systems represented a vast improvement over earlier strategic bombardment technology. Army Air Force planners envisioned a high altitude, precision strategic bombardment campaign that would compel the Japanese to surrender unconditionally. The application of the B-29 in the Pacific, however, was not as mechanistically simple as planners had hoped. Under the inevitable stress of war, there were innumerable uncertainties and unintended consequences involved in its employment. To overcome these uncertainties, planners and operators necessarily had to be adaptive in their application of the B-29 as a technological instrument. From the first operational use of the B-29 in the summer of 1944 to the end of the war, adaptation included mechanical upgrades, changes in tactical methods, and changes in operational objectives. In the end, airmen flew the B-29 not as a high altitude precision bomber as intended, but as a low altitude area bomber dropping incendiaries to burn out Japanese cities. Thanks to the dedicated efforts of both military and civilian personnel associated with the development of the B-29, American adaptation successfully outpaced the increased complexity and uncertainty introduced the bomber's employment. War is full of uncertainty that requires adaptation to overcome. This monograph presents not only the positive example of successful American adaptation, but also the negative example of the lack of Japanese defensive adaptation. Given the costs and consequences of modern military technology, the case study of the B-29 in the Pacific theater during World War II holds valuable lessons for future military planners.

ADA 370327 Approved for public release; Distribution is unlimited. The opinions and conclusions expressed herein are those of the student-authors and do not necessarily represent the views of the U.S. Army Command and General Staff College or any other governmental agency. (References to these studies should include the foregoing statement.)