Testing second language listening proficiency validly and reliably has always posed a challenge. In the days before the widespread availability of recorded material, tests were reliant upon the voice of the examiner. Each test administration was a unique phonetic event, with enormous variations of delivery between examiners and even within the performance of a single examiner on different occasions. The presentation was read-aloud, and the texts chosen were often those that had been written to be read (including literary extracts). The resulting input to test takers bore little resemblance to natural connected speech.

A cognitive model for testing listening --What does expert listening consist of? -- The second language listener -- Performance at different proficiencies levels -- Recorded content -- Recording as text -- Recording as speech -- Task characteristics -- Listening test conventions -- Task formats -- Items -- Listener roles -- Special cases -- Listening plus other skills -- Postscript -- Information load: an investigative study -- Final remarks.