The most comprehensive introduction to social research methods which guides students through the whole research process from formulating a research question to writing up.

Cover -- Brief contents -- Detailed contents -- About the author -- Introducing the students -- Guide to the book -- Guided tour of textbook features -- Guided tour of the ORC: lecturer resources -- Guided tour of the ORC: student resources -- Abbreviations -- Part One The Research Process -- 1 The nature and process of social research -- Introduction -- What is meant by 'social research'? -- Why do social research? -- The context of social research methods -- Elements of the process of social research -- Literature review -- Concepts and theories -- Research questions -- Sampling cases -- Data collection -- Data analysis -- Writing up -- The messiness of social research -- Key points -- Questions for review -- 2 Social research strategies: quantitative research and qualitative research -- Introduction -- Theory and research -- What type of theory? -- Deductive and inductive theory -- Epistemological considerations -- A natural science epistemology:positivism -- Interpretivism -- Ontological considerations -- Objectivism -- Constructionism -- Research strategy: quantitative and qualitative research -- Influences on the conduct of social research -- Values -- Practical considerations -- Key points -- Questions for review -- 3 Research designs -- Introduction -- Quality criteria in social research -- Reliability -- Replication -- Validity -- Relationship with research strategy -- Research designs -- Experimental design -- Cross-sectional design -- Longitudinal design(s) -- Case study design -- Comparative design -- Bringing research strategy and research design together -- Key points -- Questions for review -- 4 Planning a research project and formulating research questions -- Introduction -- Getting to know what is expected of you by your institution -- Thinking about your research area -- Using your supervisor -- Managing time and resources. Formulating suitable research questions -- Criteria for evaluating researchquestions -- Writing your research proposal -- Preparing for your research -- Doing your research and analysing your results -- Checklist -- Key points -- Questions for review -- 5 Getting started: reviewing the literature -- Reviewing the existing literature -- Narrative review -- Getting the most from your reading -- Systematic review -- Searching the existing literature -- Electronic databases -- Keywords and defining search parameters -- Referencing your work -- The role of the bibliography -- Avoiding plagiarism -- Checklist -- Key points -- Questions for review -- 6 Ethics and politics in social research -- Introduction -- Ethical principles -- Harm to participants -- Lack of informed consent -- Invasion of privacy -- Deception -- Ethics and the issue of quality -- The difficulties of ethical decision-making -- New media and ethical considerations -- Ethics and the Internet -- Ethics and visual images -- Politics in social research -- Checklist -- Key points -- Questions for review -- Part Two Quantitative Research -- 7 The nature of quantitative research -- Introduction -- The main steps in quantitative research -- Concepts and their measurement -- What is a concept? -- Why measure? -- Indicators -- Using multiple-indicator measures -- Dimensions of concepts -- Reliability and validity -- Reliability -- Validity -- Reflections on reliability and validity -- The main preoccupations of quantitative researchers -- Measurement -- Causality -- Generalization -- Replication -- The critique of quantitative research -- Criticisms of quantitative research -- Is it always like this? -- Reverse operationism -- Reliability and validity testing -- Sampling -- Key points -- Questions for review -- 8 Sampling in quantitative research -- Introduction to survey research. Introduction to sampling -- Sampling error -- Types of probability sample -- Simple random sample -- Systematic sample -- Stratified random sampling -- Multi-stage cluster sampling -- The qualities of a probability sample -- Sample size -- Absolute and relative sample size -- Time and cost -- Non-response -- Heterogeneity of the population -- Kind of analysis -- Types of non-probability sampling -- Convenience sampling -- Snowball sampling -- Quota sampling -- Sampling issues in online surveys -- Limits to generalization -- Error in survey research -- Key points -- Questions for review -- 9 Structured interviewing -- Introduction -- The structured interview -- Reducing error due to interviewer variability -- Accuracy and ease of data processing -- Other types of interview -- Interview contexts -- More than one interviewee -- More than one interviewer -- In person or by telephone? -- Computer-assisted interviewing -- Using mobile phones for interview surveys -- Conducting interviews -- Know the schedule -- Introducing the research -- Rapport -- Asking questions -- Recording answers -- Clear instructions -- Question order -- Probing -- Prompting -- Leaving the interview -- Training and supervision -- Problems with structured interviewing -- Characteristics of interviewers -- Response sets -- The problem of meaning -- The feminist critique -- Key points -- Questions for review -- 10 Self-administered questionnaires -- Introduction -- Self-administered questionnaire or postal questionnaire? -- Evaluating the self-administered questionnaire in relation to the structured interview -- Advantages of the self-administered questionnaire over the structured interview -- Disadvantages of the self administered questionnaire in comparison with the structured interview -- Steps to improve response rates to postal questionnaires. Designing the self-administered questionnaire -- Do not cramp the presentation -- Clear presentation -- Vertical or horizontal closed-ended answers? -- Clear instructions about how to respond -- Keep question and answers together -- Online social surveys -- Email surveys -- Web surveys -- Use of mobile telephones as a platform for self-administered questionnaires -- Mixed mode surveys -- Diaries as a form of self-administered questionnaire -- Advantages and disadvantages of the diary as a method of data collection -- Experience and event sampling -- Key points -- Questions for review -- 11 Asking questions -- Introduction -- Open- or closed-ended questions? -- Open-ended questions -- Closed-ended questions -- Types of questions -- Rules for designing questions -- General rules of thumb -- Specific rules when designing questions -- Vignette questions -- Piloting and pre-testing questions -- Using existing questions -- Checklist -- Key points -- Questions for review -- 12 Structured observation -- Introduction -- Problems with survey research on social behaviour -- So why not observe behaviour? -- The observation schedule -- Strategies for observing behaviour -- Sampling -- Sampling people -- Sampling in terms of time -- Further sampling considerations -- Issues of reliability and validity -- Reliability -- Validity -- Field stimulations as a form of structured observation -- Criticisms of structured observation -- On the other hand . . . -- Checklist -- Key points -- Questions for review -- 13 Content analysis -- Introduction -- What are the research questions? -- Selecting a sample -- Sampling media -- Sampling dates -- What is to be counted? -- Significant actors -- Words -- Subjects and themes -- Dispositions -- Coding -- Coding schedule -- Coding manual -- Potential pitfalls in devising coding schemes -- The Internet as object of content analysis. Content analysis of visual materials -- Advantages of content analysis -- Disadvantages of content analysis -- Checklist -- Key points -- Questions for review -- 14 Using existing data -- Introduction -- Secondary analysis of other researchers' data -- Advantages of secondary analysis -- Limitations of secondary analysis -- Accessing the UK Data Archive -- Meta-analysis -- Official statistics -- Reliability and validity -- Condemning and resurrecting official statistics -- Official statistics as a form of unobtrusive method -- Big Data -- Key points -- Questions for review -- 15 Quantitative data analysis -- Introduction -- A small research project -- Missing data -- Types of variable -- Univariate analysis -- Frequency tables -- Measures of central tendency -- Measures of dispersion -- Bivariate analysis -- Relationships, not causality -- Contingency tables -- Pearson's r -- Spearman's rho -- Phi and Cramér's V -- Comparing means and eta -- Multivariate analysis -- Could the relationship be spurious? -- Could there be an intervening variable? -- Could a third variable moderate the relationship? -- Statistical significance -- The chi-square test -- Correlation and statistical significance -- Comparing means and statistical significance -- Checklist -- Key points -- Questions for review -- 16 Using IBM SPSS statistics -- Introduction -- Getting started in SPSS -- Beginning SPSS -- Entering data in the Data Viewer -- Defining variables: variable names, missing values, variable labels, and value labels -- Recoding variables -- Computing a new variable -- Data analysis with SPSS -- Generating a frequency table -- Generating a bar chart -- Generating a pie chart -- Generating a histogram -- Generating the arithmetic mean, median, standard deviation, range, and boxplots -- Generating a contingency table, chi-square, and Cramér's V. Generating Pearson's r and Spearman's rho.