Public diplomacy resources and instruments -- Beginnings in the Arab world 1940s-1953 -- President Eisenhower and USIA 1953-1961 -- The Kennedy and Johnson presidencies 1961-1969 -- The Nixon and Ford presidencies 1969-1977 -- The Carter presidency 1977-1981 -- The Reagan era 1981-1989 -- The presidency of George H.W. Bush 1989-1993 -- The Clinton era 1993-2001 -- President George W. Bush's first years 2001-2003 -- The Bush presidency and Iraq -- Democratic reform and other issues.