Chapter 1Income Poverty Trends and Patterns 1 -- Data Availability 1 -- Snapshot of Poverty in the 1980s 1 -- Poverty Trends 6 -- Trends in Inequality 6 -- Poverty Levels from National Poverty Lines 9 -- Factors Underlying Poverty Trends in the Middle East and North Africa 9 -- Economic Vulnerability 13 -- Poverty Characteristics: Evidence from National Poverty Lines 14 -- Chapter 2 Trends in Human Development Indicators 21 -- Regional Comparisons 21 -- Country-Specific Performance 23 -- Gender Dimensions of Human Development 27 -- Chapter 3 Education and Poverty 33 -- Education-Poverty Links 34 -- Education Spending and Poverty Reduction 38 -- Education Quality Considerations 43 -- Chapter 4 Health and Poverty 47 -- Health and Poverty: The Record in the Middle East and North Africa 47 -- Determinants of Health Achievements in the Middle East and North Africa 51 -- Health Challenges Arising from Demographic and Epidemiologic Transition 55 -- Chapter 5 Safety Nets and the Poor 57 -- Food Subsidies 58 -- Energy Subsidies 63 -- Cash Assistance Programs 66 -- Public Works Programs 66 -- Microfinance Programs 70 -- Chapter 6 Sustaining the Gains in Poverty Reduction and Human Development 73 -- Growth Strategy and Poverty Reduction 73 -- Challenges for Human Development 76 -- Strengthening Social Safety Nets 79 -- Appendix 1 Estimating Poverty Rates 83 -- Appendix 2 GDP Per Capita (PPP) for the Middle East and North Africa Region and Comparator Countries, Selected Years, 1960-2000 85 -- Appendix 3 Human Development Statistics: Selected Years 87 -- Table 1.1 Household Survey Years by Middle Eastern and North African Country 2 -- Table 1.2 Poverty Head Count Ratios at $1/Day Line, 1984-91 5 -- Table 1.3 Poverty Head Count Ratios at $2/Day Line, 1984-91 5 -- Table 1.4 Comparison of Poverty Estimates Using International and National Poverty Lines 10 -- Table 1.5 Number of Poor People at Alternative Poverty Lines, 1987 and 2001 14 -- Table 2.1 Human Development in the Middle East and North Africa, Selected Years, 1960-2000 22 -- Table 3.1 Rates of Return on Schooling for Males in Selected Countries, Selected Years 37 -- Table 3.2 Country-Specific Patterns of Public Education Spending, Selected Years, 1970-2000 40.